Finnish Golf Players Meet Physical Activity Targets Across All Age Groups Throughout the Year

Introduction

The benefits of physical activity health have been verified in several studies and meta-analyses (Iso-Markku et al., 2022; Momma et al., 2022; Tarp et al., 2022; WHO, 2020). The Finnish national physical activity recommendations—published by the UKK Institute (2019)—state that an adult person should engage in a minimum of 2 hours 30 minutes per week of moderate physical activity or at least 1 hour 15 minutes per week of vigorous physical activity for health. In addition, an adult person should perform muscle strengthening twice a week, and people 65 years and older should perform balance activities to enhance physical functioning. The Finnish recommendation follows the World Health Organization’s (WHO) global recommendations (WHO, 2010, 2020).

In these recommendations, the health issues related to physical inactivity that were analysed for adults aged 18 to 64 years included all-cause and cause-specific mortality, incidence of cardiovascular disease, incidence of cancer, incidence of type 2 diabetes, adiposity/prevention of weight gain/body composition, mental health, cognitive abilities, adverse events, sleep duration and quality, incidence of hypertension, and health-related quality of life. The recommendations for elderly adults (65 years and older) also considered evidence regarding the association between physical activity and fall-related injuries, functional ability, osteoporosis, and psychosocial outcomes.

Based on the WHO’s 2020 recommendations, some new meta-analyses (Iso-Markku et al., 2022; Momma et al., 2022; Tarp et al., 2022) have discussed the associations between physical activity and mortality and/or some non-communicable diseases. Momma et al. (2022) found associations between muscle-strengthening activities (30–60 min/week) and a lower risk of all-cause mortality: cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer (all cancer mortality), although there were certain types of cancer in which no clear associations were revealed. In their meta-analysis, Tarp et al. (2022) concluded that a higher level of physical activity has an inverse relation to the risk of mortality, although there are some differences between normal-weight people and obese people. There was an association between the intensity of physical activity and the risk of mortality among normal-weight individuals. By contrast, the studies revealed an association between total physical activity and risk of mortality but not between the intensity of activity and risk of mortality among obese individuals. Further, there was an association between the amount of sedentary time and risk of mortality among people with normal weight but not among obese people. Iso-Markku et al.'s (2022) meta-analysis also showed that physical activity is associated with a decreased risk of all-cause dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and vascular dementia.

Research has also highlighted the health benefits of golf. Murray & al. (2016) have published a scoping review that provides evidence that golf, as a form of moderate-intensity physical activity, has a positive impact on metabolic and cardiovascular health. It reduces cancer risk, and it may improve lung function and maintain it in older adults. The risk of injuries is moderate in comparison to other sports. This review also somewhat supports the hypothesis that playing golf enhances mental well-being and reduces the risk of mortality. (Murray et al., 2016). In addition, Murray (2018) has compiled an expert consensus on the health impacts of golf using the Delphi method, that support the aforementioned health benefits.

Sorbie et al. (2021) conducted an interesting study on English golfers on the association of golf participation with health and well-being. They found that despite golfers’ relatively low levels of physical activity, golf participation was positively associated with psychological well-being. The authors later published a systematic review of 23 peer-reviewed studies on golf and physical health (Sorbie et al., 2022). Their analysis suggested that golf participation may improve musculoskeletal and cardiovascular health. They also concluded that golf could affect positively on metabolic health. The review also included a Finnish study in which 55-year-old male players were followed for 20 weeks (Parkkari et al., 2000). In that study, significant reductions were found in body mass index, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio, as well as increases in trunk muscular endurance and improvements in blood lipids. Similarly, Sorbie et al. (2022) have found that golf caddying can improve musculoskeletal health (Sorbie et al., 2022), with recent evidence suggesting the enhancement of cardiometabolic health, lower back strength, and balance (Sorbie et al., 2023).

Farahmahd et al. (2009) analysed Swedish population data and concluded that golf participation was associated with a greater life expectancy of ~5 years. Kettinen et al. (2023) compared the impacts of playing golf and Nordic walking on older adults in Finland. According to this research, both types of exercise—if carried out in an age-appropriate way—can be recommended to healthy older adults to prevent cardiovascular diseases. These exercises can also be used to improve cardiometabolic health among those who already have cardiovascular diseases. However, the study provided evidence that playing golf had more positive impacts in this respect. Furthermore, they also found that a single 18-hole golf round improved cognitive functions, suggesting golf’s potential as a preventive and treatment strategy for cognitive decline (Kettinen, Tikkanen, Hiltunen, et al., 2023).

Currently, there are 164 golf clubs and 180 golf courses in Finland. The Finnish Golf Association has 155,500 members (Finnish Golf Union, 2023b), which can be considered a rough estimation of the number of players, and which is about 3% of the total population in Finland. The mean age of golfers in Finland is 48 years. Finnish golf players, particularly men, are evenly distributed into different age groups between 20 and 70 years. Examining the growth in the number of Finnish golf players who have been golf union members over the past few decades reveals a growing interest in the sport.

Golf culture is predominantly male-dominated both globally and in Finland, where 73 % of the members are men. Men in the 20s, 30s, and up to 60s each represent approximately 16–19% of the total male golf-playing population. Among women, the proportion of older age groups is larger: 64% of the female members of the Finnish Golf Union are in their 50s or older. The smallest age group consists of women in their 30s. These differences in age distributions divisions suggest that golf culture may vary between men and women.

Research questions

Although there is research on the health impacts of golf and on the health impacts of physical activity in general, studies on the specific ways in which golf practitioners are active are scant. This study discusses the role of golf from this perspective: specifically, how it contributes to physically active life along the lifespan. Pertinent questions include how much they play golf, what other types of physical activity they engage in, and whether their total amount of physical activity meets the national recommendations. Based on this, the research questions of this study are outlined as follows:

1. How extensively do Finnish golf players participate in golf during the active play season? What other physical activities do they engage in, and what is the overall level of physical activity throughout the year?

2. How does the frequency of playing golf differ among Finnish golf players across genders and age groups?

3. How well does the level of physical activity among golf players align with recommendations for physical activity in Finland? Do golfers differ from the general population in Finland in terms of reaching national physical activity targets?

4. What are the experienced benefits of playing golf, and what motivates golf practitioners to play?

Methods

This paper is part of a larger project on the social significance of golf in Finland. The data for the study were collected through an online survey conducted in May 2022. The questionnaire was designed by the researcher^[1]. The primary purpose of the questionnaire was to collect data on how frequently golf practitioners play golf, how much other physical activity they engage in, how much they spend on golf (not reported in this article), and how playing golf influences their well-being.

The questions were divided into three main topics: (1) physical activity, (2) spending on golf, and (3) the impact of golf on personal well-being and the motivations for playing golf. Additionally, the questionnaire gathered background information, including age, gender, household size, educational attainment, employment status, home province, and household gross income. The first set of questions collected information about the role of golf as a component of weekly and yearly physical activities, along with data that enabled the assessment of the role of golf in various phases of the lifespan. The participants were asked specific questions about golf, such as their weekly activities during the active play season, whether they walked or used a golf cart while playing, the length of their active play season, how long the respondent had been playing golf, and how long they expected to continue playing. They were also asked to assess the total amount of all their weekly physical activities throughout the year and to report other exercise hobbies besides golf.

The questionnaire items on the weekly amount of physical activity used a logarithmic scale, with the respondents offered the following choices: less than two hours; 2–4 hours; 4–8 hours; 8–16 hours, 16 hours or more; and “I don’t know, or I don’t want to answer”. The logarithmic scale was chosen because it was expected that as the amount of physical activity increased, it would become more difficult to assess the exact amount of activity with the same precision as in the case of lesser activity. The scale of 2 hours, 4 hours etc., was chosen because an 18-hole golf round typically lasts approximately four hours (Last, 2014), and for this reason, the scale is expected to align with the actual durations of playing golf.

The respondents were also asked to assess the impact of golf on their well-being. The questionnaire included eleven statements, such as “Playing golf helps me to relax” and “Playing golf brings joy to my life”. The respondents could choose between “1 = totally disagree … 5 = totally agree”. It was also possible to choose the alternative “I don’t know or want to answer”. These questions also provided information about people’s motivations to play golf.

The questionnaire was published in Finnish and Swedish and was tested by four players and/or experts who did not participate in its design. Invitations to participate in the survey were initially sent to 10,000 individual members of the Finnish Golf Union holding a player licence. Later, an additional 4,000 members received a second invitation, which targeted sub-groups of the player population that were underrepresented among the initial respondents. The survey received 1,052 responses, resulting in a response rate of 8% among those invited to participate.

Statistical analysis

Means and standard deviations were calculated for the continuous variables. Frequencies and percentages were calculated for the categorical variables. The normal distribution of the data was analysed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and visually observed from the histogram, which indicated that the data were non-normally distributed. For categorial data, percentage comparisons were used to describe the age group differences in golf-specific parameters and physical activity levels besides a chi-square test. To determine gender differences in continuous parameters, the Mann–Whitney U test was used as a nonparametric test. The results were analysed using IMB SPSS Statistics version 27.0 (Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). The significance level was set to p<0.05, and the CI limits were 95%.

Results

Characteristics of study participants

The survey received 1052 responses, resulting in a response rate of 8% among those invited to participate. The respondents included 64% males (mean age 54 years, SD 16 years) and 35% females (mean age 56 years, SD 15 years), with an overall average age of 55 years (SD 16 years) and an age range of 18 to 87 years. Female respondents were slightly older than men (p = 0.044).

Respondents were categorised into six different age groups (18–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69, >70 years). A statistically significant difference was observed in the response rates between the age groups (p = 0.042). A comparison of the survey sample to the base population of Finnish Golf Union members (Finnish Golf Union, 2023a) showed that men were slightly underrepresented compared to women across all age groups, although they still outnumbered women in each category. In both genders, the age group of 60–69 years was overrepresented, while the age group of 19–29 years was underrepresented. Among men, the age group of 30–39 years was also underrepresented. (Table 1.)

Among male respondents, the mean golf handicap value was 22 (SD 11), and for women, it was 28 (SD 9). These values were lower than the reported mean handicap values for Finnish Golf Union members in that year, which were 25 for men and 35 for women. The observed gender differences in handicap values were consistent with the broader Golf Union membership, indicating that male respondents tended to have lower handicap values than female respondents (p < 0.001). The observed difference was larger among women, which may suggest that the female respondents were more committed to the hobby than the average female Golf Union member.

Golf routines during the active play season

For 75% of the respondents, the active play season typically lasted 4–7 months. The most frequent length for the play season was 5 months (n = 246, 23%), and the second most frequent duration was 6 months (n = 213, 20%). The frequency was similar in both genders and age groups, but in the age group of 50–59 years, the most popular durations were 6 and 7 months, with 22% (n = 49, n = 50) of respondents in this age group indicating both durations. A comparison of the differences between the age groups by gender in categorical responses to length of the play season revealed a statistically significant difference in men’s responses (p = 0.007) but not in women’s responses (p = 0.124).

The total amount of physical activities

Overall, 89% of the respondents answered that they had some kind of physical activity at least four hours a week throughout the year, and 59% did vigorous-intensity level physical activity for more than two hours a week. The share of people who had vigorous-intensity activity was smaller in the older age groups.

Almost 90% of the respondents had at least one type of physical activity in addition to golf throughout the year, and 70% had one or two other types of physical activities. Of all respondents, 18% stated that golf was not their main type of physical activity and that they were more active in other types of sports or other physical activities. This response was more common among younger age groups, with interest and participation in golf tending to increase slightly in older age groups.

Respondents of younger age groups typically played racquet sports, trained in gyms (especially respondents in their 20s), or exercised jogging or running, whereas older respondents participated more in lower-intensity sports. Walking was the most common exercise mode mentioned among older respondents. The gym was most popular among the youngest age group, with 30% having some type of gym training routine. The proportion of people engaging in cross-country skiing was highest among those over 50 years old (Table 4).

How does the frequency of playing differ among Finnish golf players

Over 70% of the respondents played golf at least once a week during their active play season. No statistical differences were observed between genders (p = 0.609), but significant differences were observed across age groups (p < 0.001), indicating that people in their 30’s or 40’s are less active than the other age groups (Table 5).

Approximately 40% of the respondents stated that they almost always played 18-hole rounds, and 60% of the respondents played full 18-hole rounds at least twice out of three times when they played golf. There were no statistical differences between the genders (p = 0.773) in the frequency of the 18-hole rounds. The most common way of playing was walking (n = 967, 92%), and only 3% (n = 36) reported using a golf cart.

In older age groups, the respondents—unsurprisingly—tended to have a longer playing career behind them. They were also quite confident about continuing golf playing. In nearly all age groups, approximately 90% or more of the respondents assessed that they would likely maintain participation level or increase this level during the following five or ten years.

How well does the level of physical activity among golf players meet national standards?

The percentage of people who met the national physical activity guidelines was higher among golf players than among the general population, both among men and among women. The difference increased in the older age groups (Table 6). Since the data about physical activity were based on individual self-assessments by the respondents, there was a risk that they might overestimate their activities. To account for this in the comparisons, we set the minimum requirements for physical activity in this survey higher (4 hours) than those in the Finnish physical activity guidelines for adults in the general population (2.5 hours).

The experienced benefits of playing golf

The respondents were asked what kinds of benefits and/or enjoyment playing golf provided. The respondents gave the highest scores to direct benefits such as joy and the possibility of spending time with family, friends, or other close people. The respondents also positively assessed—although not as high as the direct benefits—more indirect benefits, such as health and fitness improvements, opportunities to make new friends, and the advantages of golf in practicing other sports or physical activities. The lowest scores were recorded for the role of golf in establishing contact with people who are important for work or career (Table 7).

Discussion

The first research question of this study was: How extensively do Finnish golf players participate in golf during the active play season, and additionally, what other physical activities do they engage in, and what is the overall level of physical activity throughout the year? For 75% of the respondents, the active play season typically lasted from 4 to 7 months. The most common length for the play season was 5 months, followed by 6 months as the second most popular duration. This suggests that golf cannot provide regular physical activity throughout the entire year. However, almost 90% of the respondents engaged in at least one type of physical activity besides golf throughout the year, with 70% indicating 1–2 other forms of exercise every week in addition to golf. In younger age groups, racquet sports and various types of gym exercises were common, while in older age groups, walking was a popular choice. This indicates that golf players were also physically active outside of the golf season.

The share of those who engaged in 18-hole rounds was greater among the older age groups. Among 30 to 39 years old, 32% stated that almost all their rounds were 18-hole rounds, whereas among 60 to 69 years old, the proportion was 42%, and among those aged < 70 years, 54% almost always played 18-hole rounds. Notably, 90% of the respondents stated that they walked golf rounds. Even in the oldest age group (70 years or older), 84% stated that they walked golf rounds. This aligns with Kettinen et al.'s (2023) findings, which revealed that the most common way to play golf is by walking, using a push/pull cart for transporting golf clubs, with only a small percentage using a golf buggy. These findings are positive because Luscombe & al. (2017), in their meta-analysis, state that the use of an electric golf cart significantly reduces physical activity in terms of energy expenditure, hearth rate and distance covered.

The second research question was about how does the frequency of playing golf differ among Finnish golf players across genders and age groups? According to our analysis, people in older age groups (people in their 50s, 60s, and early 70s) tend to have a longer golf season, and they play more often than people in their 30s or 40s. However, people in their 20s are also active players. Among the respondents in this age group, 30% played at least three times a week.

In this study, people in their 30s differed from other golf players in two respects. As mentioned above, they did not play as actively as respondents in other age groups, and secondly, the share of women was smallest in this age group among the members of the Finnish Golf Union. The most likely explanation—although not verified in this study—is that other commitments, such as career and family, require so much time in this phase of life that playing golf must give way to more significant obligations.

The third research question was: How well does the level of physical activity among golf players align with recommendations for physical activity in Finland? Do golfers differ from the general population in Finland in terms of reaching national physical activity targets? In Finland, 34% of men and 26% of women participate in regular fitness or competitive sports during their leisure time. The most common activities are walking in different modes, jogging, running, cycling, and gym training (Koponen et al., 2018). According to Koponen et al (2018) study, one-third of men and women reached the physical activity level as in the guidelines, and about half of Finnish adults meet their target for endurance exercise. According to this survey, when comparing endurance exercise targets, golf enthusiasts are more physically active throughout the year than the general population across all age groups. This difference becomes more prominent as age groups increase. Among people in their 60s and 70s, approximately 35%–45% of the general population met the criteria of physical activity of the Finnish guidelines, whereas among the golf players, the respective share was about 90%. The survey showed that the share of people whose activity meets the physical activity guidelines is greater among golf players in all age groups, and the difference becomes larger with increasing age. This applies to both genders.

However, there is one caveat in the interpretation of the results. It is self-evident that among enthusiasts of a particular sport, the proportion of physically active individuals is higher than in the general population because the second group includes individuals who are not physically active. The ‘real’ or valuable finding is that the responses strongly indicate that playing golf supports an active lifestyle into an advantaged age. Nevertheless, golf alone cannot be attributed all the credit for the health benefits attributed to a physically active lifestyle. It can play an important role, particularly among older players, but golf enthusiasts typically engage in other activities.

Studies done in Australia have indicated that playing golf has benefits to general health, even on those with health restrictions (Stenner et al., 2019, 2023). A good quality of life and a positive association between golf and quality of well-being were reported in a study in which golfers were compared to non-golfers. This was considered to be due to golfers being physically more active than non-golfers (Stenner et al., 2019). Another study compared golfers with and without osteoarthritis. A reduced psychological distress and improved general health compared to a general population-based sample was reported (Stenner et al., 2023).

Kettinen et al. (2023) studied seasonal variations in 65-year-old and older Finnish golfers. They found that playing golf increased by 24% in the summer of 2020, with moderate physical activity increasing by 37%, walking activities increasing by 26%, and sitting decreasing by 21% compared to pre-COVID-19 winter. This was contrary to findings in studies comparing the physical activity of the general population, which demonstrated a decrease during the pandemic. However, it is essential to note that the survey in our study was conducted in 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, a period known to have increased the popularity of golf and related physical activities (Kettinen, Venojärvi, Murray, et al., 2023). Therefore, the data collected might not entirely reflect a typical or pre-pandemic situation. However, the Finnish Golf Union has observed that the popularity of golf has remained almost at the same level during the years 2020–2023 (Finnish Golf Union, 2023a).

The fourth research question concerned motivation and the experienced benefits of playing golf. When asked about the experienced benefits of playing golf, the respondents gave the highest scores to direct benefits, such as joy, the opportunity to relax, and the chance to spend time with family, friends, or other close people. They also positively assessed—although to a lesser extent—some indirect benefits, such as golf’s positive impact on health and fitness. By contrast, it appears that indirect impacts on career or social success did not have a similar value, as the question measuring this topic received the lowest score.

Study limitations

The data of this study was collected from the members of the Finnish Golf Union have been discussed above.

The main limitation of the data is its self-reported design, as the respondents assessed their own physical activity. For this reason, and as explained in the text above, when comparing the respondents’ physical activity to the general population, the minimum requirements for physical activity were set higher (4 hours) than those in the Finnish physical activity guidelines for adults (2.5 hours).

Conclusion

This paper is a cross-sectional sub-study of a larger study on the social significance of golf in Finland. In 2022, through an online survey, members of the Finnish Golf Union holding a player licence were requested to report their golf habits, motivations to play during the active play season, and physical activity habits throughout the year in 2021. The results were compared to Finnish physical activity guidelines and to the wider general population. Altogether 1052 individuals (64% men and 35% women, age range 18-87 years old) responded.

The results can be considered very positive in terms of physical activity levels throughout the year. The golfers also engaged in other exercise and physical activity routines, clearly exceeding the minimum targets set in national health-enhancing physical activity guidelines. As a result, they differed from the general population in their physical activity behaviours, particularly those of advanced age.

Having golf as an exercise hobby seems to be associated with a physically active lifestyle in general. The surveyed golfers were typically active in other types of sports or physical activities and were motivated to maintain a physically active lifestyle. Whether Finnish golfers are healthier due to being more active overall compared to the general population remains to be studied.

Acknowlegedment

The research project was funded by the Finnish Golf Union. Thus, representatives of the Golf Union participated in its planning by providing technical expertise on the subject, but they did not introduce questions that would support their agenda or rule them out because of their interests.